中国人的姓氏日语怎么读

常有网友问中国人的姓氏日语怎么读？也常有人发表相关资料，给大家带来知识和方便。但是
，不少网友在这些资料中，怎么也查不到自己的姓日语怎么读，并为此而着急和苦苦寻找。笔
者利用手头资料，花费了许多时间，编成了这个《中日对照百家姓》发表于此，希望大家能够
喜欢并不吝指正。（笔者附言：从未见过这样的资料发表）
《中日对照百家姓》是完全按照我国流行的《百家姓》序编排的，因此也可让不熟悉《百家姓
》的朋友了解相关知识，可谓一举两得。

(部分无日语汉字对照,按汉语发音）
赵趙 ちょう 钱錢 せん 孙孫 そん 李李 り

周周 しゅう 吴吳 ご 郑鄭 てい 王王 おう

冯馮 ひょう 陈陳 ちん 褚褚 ちょ 卫衛 えい

蒋蔣 しょう 沈沈 ちん 韩韓 かん 杨楊 よう

朱朱 しゅ 秦秦 しん 尤尤 ゆう 许許 きょ

何何 か 吕呂 りょ 施施 し 张張 ちょう

孔孔 こう 曹曹 そう 严厳 げん 华華 か

金金 きん 魏魏 ぎ 陶陶 とう 姜姜 きょう

戚戚 せき 谢謝 しゃ 邹 すう 喻喩 ゆ

柏柏 はく 水水 すい 窦 とう 章章 しょう

云雲 うん 苏蘇 そ 潘潘 はん 葛葛 かつ

奚渓 けい 范范 はん 彭彭 ほう 郎郎 ろう

鲁魯 ろ 韦韋 い 昌昌 しょう 马馬 ば

苗苗 みょう 凤鳳 ほう 花花 か 方方 ほう

俞俞 ゆ 任任 にん 袁袁 えん 柳柳 りゅう

酆 （缺） 鲍 ほう 史史 し 唐唐 とう

费費 ひ 廉廉 れん 岑岑 しん 薛薛 せつ

雷雷 らい 贺賀 が 倪倪 げい 汤湯 とう

滕藤 とう 殷殷 いん 罗羅 ら 毕畢 ひつ

郝 かく 邬 う 安安 あん 常常 じょう

乐樂 がく 于于 う 时時 じ 傅傅 ふ

皮皮 ひ 卞 べん 齐齊 せい 康康 こう

伍伍 ご 余余 よ 元元 げん 卜 ぼく

顾顧 こ 孟孟 もう 平平 へい 黄黃 こう

和和 わ 穆穆 ぼく、もく 萧蕭 しょう 尹尹 いん

姚姚 よう 邵邵 しょう 湛 (缺) 汪汪 おう

祁祁 き 毛毛 もう 禹 う 狄狄 てき

米米 べい 贝貝 ばい 明明 めい、みょう 臧 そう

计計 けい 伏伏 ふく 成成 せい 戴戴 たい

谈談 たん 宋宋 そう 茅茅 ぼう 庞 ほう

熊熊 ゆう 纪紀 き 舒舒 しょ 屈屈 くつ

项項 こう 祝祝 しゅく 董董 とう 粱梁 りょう

杜杜 と 阮阮 げん 蓝藍 らん 闵 びん

席席 せき 季季 き 麻麻 ま 强強 きょう

贾賈 こ 路路 ろ 娄婁 ろう 危危 き

江江 こう 童童 どう 颜顔 がん 郭郭 かく

梅梅 ばい 盛盛 せい 林林 りん 刁 ちょう

钟鍾 しょう 徐徐 じょ 邱邱 きゅう 骆駱 らく

高高 こう 夏夏 か 蔡蔡 さい 田田 でん

樊樊 はん 胡胡 こ 凌凌 りょう 霍霍 かく

虞虞 ぐ 万萬 まん 支支 し 柯 か

昝 (缺) 管管 かん 卢盧 ろ 莫莫 ばく

经経 けい 房房 ぼう 裘 きゅう 缪謬 びゅう

干幹 かん 解解 かい 应応 おう 宗宗 そう

丁丁 てい 宣宣 せん 贲 (缺) 邓鄧 とう

郁郁 いく 单単 ぜん 杭杭 こう 洪洪 こう

包包 ほう 诸諸 しょ 左左 さ 石石 せき

崔崔 さい 吉吉 きち 钮 ちゅう 龚 きょう

程程 てい 嵇 (缺) 邢 けい 滑滑 かつ

裴 ひ 陆陸 りく 荣榮 えい 翁翁 おう

荀荀 じゅん 羊羊 よう 於於 お 惠恵 けい

甄 けん 魏 き 家家 か 封封 ふう

芮 ぜい 羿 (缺) 储儲 ちょ 靳 きん

汲汲 きゅう 邴 へい 糜 松松 しょう

井井 せい 段段 だん 富富 ふ 巫巫 ふ

乌烏 う 焦焦 しょう 巴巴 は 弓弓 きゅう

牧牧 ぼく 隗隗 かい 山山 さん 谷谷 こく

车車 しゃ 侯侯 こう 宓 (缺) 蓬蓬 ほう

全全 ぜん 郗 (缺) 班班 はん 仰仰 ぎょう、こう

秋秋 しゅう 仲 ちゅう 伊伊 い 宫宮 きゅう

宁寧 ねい 仇仇 きゅう 栾 らん 暴暴 ぼう

甘甘 かん 钭斜 しゃ 厉 れい 戎戎 じゅう

祖祖 そ 武武 ぶ 符符 ふ 刘劉 りゅう

景景 けい 詹 たん 束束 そく 龙龍 りゅう

叶葉 よう 幸幸 こう 司司 し 韶 しょう

郜 こう 黎黎 れい 蓟 けい 薄 ぼ

印印 いん 宿宿 しゅく 白白 はく 怀懐 かい

蒲蒲 ほ 台台 だい 从従 じゅ 鄂 がく

索索 さく 咸 かん 籍籍 せき 赖賴 らい

卓卓 たく 蔺 りん 屠屠 と 蒙蒙 もう

池池 ち 乔喬 きょう 阴陰 いん 郁郁 いく

胥 (缺) 能能 のう 苍蒼 そう 双双 そう

闻聞 ぶん 莘 (缺) 党党 とう 翟 てき

谭譚 たん 贡貢 こう 劳労 ろう 逄 (缺)

姬姫 き 申申 しん 扶扶 ふ 堵堵 と

冉 ぜん 宰宰 さい 郦 り 雍 よう

卻 げき 璩 (缺) 桑桑 そう 桂桂 けい

濮 ぼく 牛牛 ぎゅう 寿寿 じゅ 通通 つう

边辺 へん 扈 こ 燕燕 えん 冀 き

郏 きょう 浦浦 ほ 尚尚 しょう 农農 のう

温溫 おん 别別 べつ 庄莊 そう 晏 あん

柴柴 さい 瞿 く 阎閻 えん 充充 じゅう

慕慕 ぼ 连連 れん 茹 じょ 习習 しゅう

宦 (缺) 艾 がい 鱼魚 ぎょ 容容 よう

向向 こう 古古 こ 易易 い 慎慎 しん

戈 か 廖廖 りょう 庚庚 こう 终終 しゅう

暨既 き 居居 きょ 衡衡 こう 步歩 ほ、ぶ

都都 と 耿耿 こう 满満 まん 弘弘 こう

匡匡 きょう 国国 こく 文文 ぶん 寇 こう

广広 こう 禄禄 ろく 阙 けつ 东東 とう

欧歐 おう 殳 (缺) 沃沃 よく 利利 り

蔚蔚 い 越越 えつ 夔 き 隆隆 りゅう

师師 し 巩 きょう 厍庫 こ 聂聶 じょう

晁 ちょう 勾勾 こう 敖 ごう 融融 ゆう

冷冷 れい 訾 (缺) 辛辛 しん 阚 かん

那那 な 简簡 かん 饶 じょう 空空 くう

曾曾 そう 毋 (缺) 沙沙 さ 乜 (缺)

养養 よう 鞠鞠 きく 须須 しゅ、す 丰豊 ほう

巢巣 そう 关関 かん 蒯 かい 相相 そう

查查 さ 后 こう 荆荊 けい 红紅 こう

游 ゆう 竺竺 じく 权権 けん 逯 ろく

盖蓋 がい 後後 こう、ご 桓 (缺) 公公 こう

万俟 司马 しば 上官 じょうかん 欧阳 おうよう

夏侯 かこう 诸葛 しょかつ 闻人 东方

赫连 かくれん 皇甫 こうほ 尉迟 公羊

澹台 たんだい 公冶 こうや 宗政 濮阳

淳于 单于 ぜんう 太叔 たいしゅく 申屠 しんと

公孙 こうそん 仲孙 轩辕 けんえん 令狐

钟离 しょうり 宇文 长孙 慕容

鲜于 闾丘 司徒 しと 司空 しくう

亓官 司寇 しこう 仉督 子车

颛孙 端木 巫马 公西

漆雕 乐正 壤驷 公良 こうりょう

拓拔 夹谷 宰父 谷粱

晋晋 しん 楚楚 そ 闫閻 えん 法法 ほう

汝汝 じょ 鄢 (缺) 涂 と 钦欽 きん

段干 百里 ひゃくり 东郭 とうかく 南门

呼延 こえん 归海 羊舌 微生

岳帅 缑亢 况后 有琴

梁丘 左丘 东门 とうもん 西门 せいもん

商商 しょう 牟牟 む 佘佘 じゃ 佴 (缺)

伯伯 はく 赏賞 しょう 南南 なん 宫宮 きゅう

墨墨 ぼく 哈 ごう 谯 しょう 笪 (缺)

年年 ねん 爱愛 あい 阳陽 よう 佟 とう

第第 だい 五五 ご 言言 げん 福福 ふく

模具如何进行归类

　模具是现代工业的重要工艺装备，是许多工业产品生产中不可缺少的组成部分。我国加入 WTO以后，吸引外资能力的逐年增强，成为世界产品制造工厂地位愈加突出，各类工业品模具的进口越来越多。

　　模具的类型通常是按照加工对象和工艺的不同进行分类，从行业角度的区分来看主要有塑料模具、橡胶模具、金属冷冲模具、金属冷挤压模具和热挤压模具、金属拉拔模具、粉末冶金模具、金属压铸模具、金属精密铸造模具、玻璃模具、玻璃钢模具等等。

　　虽然模具种类很多，但在税则归类中主要涉及税目 84.80和82.07项下的有关子目。

　　下面仅就进口最为常见的塑料制品成型加工中所用不同类型的模具如何进行归类作一介绍。

　　塑料最常见的成型方法一般分为熔体成型和固相成型两大类：熔体成型是把塑料加热至熔点以上，使之处于熔融态进行成型加工的方式，属于此种成型方法的模塑工艺主要有注射成型、压塑（缩）成型、挤出成型等；固相成型是指塑料在熔融温度以下保持固态下的一类成型方法，如一些塑料包装容器生产的真空成型、压缩空气成型和吹塑成型等。此外还有液态成型方式，如铸塑成型、搪塑和蘸浸成型法等。

　　按照上述成型方法的不同，可以划分出对应不同工艺要求的塑料加工模具类型，主要有注射成型模具、挤出成型模具、压塑成型模具、吹塑成型模具、吸塑成型模具、高发泡聚苯乙烯成型模具等。

塑料注射（塑）模具 : 它主要是热塑性塑料件产品生产中应用最为普遍的一种成型模具，塑料注射成型模具对应的加工设备是塑料注射成型机，塑料首先在注射机底加热料筒内受热熔融，然后在注射机的螺杆或柱塞推动下，经注射机喷嘴和模具的浇注系统进入模具型腔，塑料冷却硬化成型，脱模得到制品。其结构通常由成型部件、浇注系统、导向部件、推出机构、调温系统、排气系统、支撑部件等部分组成。制造材料通常采用塑料模具钢模块，常用的材质主要为碳素结构钢、碳素工具钢、合金工具钢、高速钢等。注射成型加工方式通常只适用于热塑性塑料品种的制品生产，用注射成型工艺生产的塑料制品十分广泛，从生活日用品到各类复杂的机械、电器、交通工具零件等都是用注射模具成型的，它是塑料制品生产中应用最广的一种加工方法。塑料注射（塑）成型模具应归入税号 8480.7100。

塑料压塑模具 : 包括压缩成型和压注成型两种结构模具类型。它们是主要用来成型热固性塑料的一类模具，其所对应的设备是压力成型机。压缩成型方法是根据塑料特性，将模具加热至成型温度（一般在 103℃－180℃），然后将计量好的压塑粉放入模具型腔和加料室，闭合模具，塑料在高热、高压作用下呈软化粘流，经一定时间后固化定型，成为所需制品形状。压注成型与压缩成型不同的是设有单独的加料室，成型前模具先闭合，塑料在加料室内完成预热呈粘流态，在压力作用下高速挤入模具型腔，硬化成型。压缩模具也用来成型某些特殊的热塑性塑料如难以熔融的热塑性塑料（如聚四氟乙烯）毛坯（冷压成型）、光学性能很高的树脂镜片、轻微发泡的硝酸纤维素汽车方向盘等。压塑模具主要由型腔、加料腔、导向机构、推出部件、加热系统等组成。压注模具广泛用于封装电器元件方面。压塑模具制造所用材质与注射模具基本相同。塑料压塑成型模具应归入税号8480.7100。

塑料挤出模具 : 是用来成型生产连续形状的塑料产品的一类模具，又叫挤出成型机头，广泛用于管材、棒材、单丝、板材、薄膜、电线电缆包覆层、异型材等的加工。与其对应的生产设备是塑料挤出机，其原理是固态塑料在加热和挤出机的螺杆旋转加压条件下熔融、塑化，通过特定形状的口模而制成截面与口模形状相同的连续塑料制品。其制造材料主要有碳素结构钢、合金工具钢等，有些挤出模具在需要耐磨的部件上还会镶嵌金刚石等耐磨材料。挤出加工工艺通常只适用于热塑性塑料品种制品的生产，其在结构上与注塑模具和压塑模具有明显区别。塑料挤出成型模具应归税号 8480.7900。

塑料吹塑模具 : 是用来成型塑料容器类中空制品（如饮料瓶、日化用品等各种包装容器）的一种模具，吹塑成型的形式按工艺原理主要有挤出吹塑中空成型、注射吹塑中空成型、注射延伸吹塑中空成型（俗称“注拉吹”）、多层吹塑中空成型、片材吹塑中空成型等。中空制品吹塑成型所对应的设备通常称为塑料吹塑成型机，吹塑成型只适用于热塑性塑料品种制品的生产。吹塑模具结构较为简单，所用材料多以碳素钢制造。吹塑模具应归入税号 8480.7900。

塑料吸塑模具 : 是以塑料板、片材为原料成型某些较简单塑料制品的一种模具，其原理是利用抽真空成型方法或压缩空气成型方法使固定在凹模或凸模上的塑料板、片，在加热软化的情况下变形而贴在模具的型腔上得到所需成型产品，主要用于一些日用品、食品、玩具类包装制品生产方面。吸塑模具因成型时压力较低，所以模具材料多选用铸铝或非金属材料制造，结构较为简单。吸塑模具应归入税号 8480.7900。

高发泡聚苯乙烯成型模具 : 是应用可发性聚苯乙烯（由聚苯乙烯和发泡剂组成的珠状粒）原料来成型各种所需形状的泡沫塑料包装材料的一种模具。其原理是可发聚苯乙烯在模具内通入蒸汽成型，包括简易手工操作模具和液压机直通式泡沫塑料模具两种类型，主要用来生产工业品方面的包装产品。制造此种模具的材料有铸铝、不锈钢、青铜等。高发泡聚苯乙烯成型模具应归入税号 8480.7900。

为保证通关归类审核的准确性，不同的塑料成型加工模具在进口时应注意按规范的品名进行申报。

国际长途区号表

国际长途区号表
中文名称cname 英文名称ename 区号code
阿富汗 Afghanistan 93
阿拉斯加 Alaska(U.S.A) 1907
阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 355
阿尔及利亚 Algeria 213
安道尔 Andorra 376
安哥拉 Angola 244
安圭拉岛英) Anguilla I. 1264
安提瓜和巴布达 Antigua and Barbuda 1268
阿根廷 Argentina 54
亚美尼亚 Armenia 374
阿鲁巴岛 Aruba I. 297
阿森松(英) Ascension 247
澳大利亚 Australia 61
奥地利 Austria 43
阿塞拜疆 Azerbaijan 994
巴林 Bahrain 973
孟加拉国 Bangladesh 880
巴巴多斯 Barbados 1246
白俄罗斯 Belarus 375
比利时 Belgium 32
伯利兹 Belize 501
贝宁 Benin 229
百慕大群岛(英) Bermuda Is. 1441
不丹 Bhutan 975
玻利维亚 Bolivia 591
波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia And Herzegovina 387
博茨瓦纳 Botswana 267
巴西 Brazil 55
保加利亚 Bulgaria 359
布基纳法索 Burkinafaso 226
布隆迪 Burundi 257
喀麦隆 Cameroon 237
加拿大 Canada 1
加那利群岛 Canaries Is. 34
佛得角 Cape Verde 238
开曼群岛(英) Cayman Is. 1345
中非 Central Africa 236
乍得 Chad 235
智利 Chile 56
圣诞岛 Christmas I. 61 9164
科科斯岛 Cocos I. 61 9162
哥伦比亚 Colombia 57
巴哈马国 Commonwealth of The Bahamas 1809
多米尼克国 Commonwealth of dominica 1809
科摩罗 Comoro 269
刚果 Congo 242
科克群岛(新) Cook IS. 682
哥斯达黎加 Costa Rica 506
克罗地亚 Croatian 383 385
古巴 Cuba 53
塞浦路斯 Cyprus 357
捷克 Czech 420
丹麦 Denmark 45
迪戈加西亚岛 Diego Garcia I. 246
吉布提 Djibouti 253
多米尼加共和国 Dominican Rep. 1809
厄瓜多尔 Ecuador 593
埃及 Egypt 20
萨尔瓦多 El Salvador 503
赤道几内亚 Equatorial Guinea 240
厄立特里亚 Eritrea 291
爱沙尼亚 Estonia 372
埃塞俄比亚 Ethiopia 251
福克兰群岛 Falkland Is. 500
法罗群岛(丹) Faroe Is. 298
斐济 Fiji 679
芬兰 Finland 358
法国 France 33
法属圭亚那 French Guiana 594
法属波里尼西亚 French Polynesia 689
加蓬 Gabon 241
冈比亚 Gambia 220
格鲁吉亚 Georgia 995
德国 Germany 49
加纳 Ghana 233
直布罗陀(英) Gibraltar 350
希腊 Greece 30
格陵兰岛 Greenland 299
格林纳达 Grenada 1809
瓜德罗普岛(法) Guadeloupe I. 590
关岛(美) Guam 671
危地马拉 Guatemala 502
几内亚 Guinea 224
几内亚比绍 Guinea-bissau 245
圭亚那 Guyana 592
海地 Haiti 509
夏威夷 Hawaii 1808
洪都拉斯 Honduras 504
匈牙利 HunGary 36
冰岛 Iceland 354
印度 India 91
印度尼西亚 Indonesia 62
伊郎 Iran 98
伊拉克 Iraq 964
爱尔兰 Ireland 353
以色列 Israel 972
意大利 Italy 39
科特迪瓦 Ivory Coast 225
牙买加 Jamaica 1876
日本 Japan 81
约旦 Jordan 962
柬埔塞 Kampuchea 855
哈萨克斯坦 Kazakhstan 7
肯尼亚 Kenya 254
基里巴斯 Kiribati 686
朝鲜 Korea(dpr of) 850
韩国 Korea(republic of) 82
科威特 Kuwait 965
吉尔吉斯斯坦 Kyrgyzstan 7
老挝 Laos 856
拉脱维亚 Latvia 371
黎巴嫩 Lebanon 961
莱索托 Lesotho 266
利比里亚 Liberia 231
利比亚 Libya 218
列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 41 75
立陶宛 Lithuania 370
卢森堡 Luxembourg 352
马其顿 Macedonia 389
马达加斯加 Madagascar 261
马拉维 Malawi 265
马来西亚 Malaysia 60
马尔代夫 Maldive 960
马里 Mali 223
马耳他 Malta 356
马里亚纳群岛 Mariana Is. 670
马绍尔群岛 Marshall Is. 692
马提尼克(法) Martinique 596
毛里塔尼亚 Mauritania 222
毛里求斯 Mauritius 230
马约特岛 Mayotte I. 269
墨西哥 Mexico 52
密克罗尼西亚(美) Micronesia 691
中途岛(美) Midway I. 1808
摩尔多瓦 Moldova 373
摩纳哥 Monaco 377
蒙古 Mongolia 976
蒙特塞拉特岛(英) Montserrat I. 1664
摩洛哥 Morocco 212
莫桑比克 Mozambique 258
缅甸 Myanmar 95
纳米比亚 Namibia 264
瑙鲁 Nauru 674
尼泊尔 Nepal 977
荷兰 Netherlands 31
荷属安的列斯群岛 Netherlandsantilles Is. 599
新喀里多尼亚群岛(法) New Caledonia Is. 687
新西兰 New Zealand 64
尼加拉瓜 Nicaragua 505
尼日尔 Niger 227
尼日利亚 Nigeria 234
纽埃岛(新) Niue I. 683
诺福克岛(澳) Norfolk I, 6723
挪威 Norway 47
阿曼 Oman 968
帕劳(美) Palau 680
巴拿马 Panama 507
巴布亚新几内亚 Papua New Guinea 675
巴拉圭 Paraguay 595
秘鲁 Peru 51
菲律宾 Philippines 63
波兰 Poland 48
葡萄牙 Portugal 351
巴基斯坦 Pskistan 92
波多黎各(美) Puerto Rico 1787
卡塔尔 Qatar 974
留尼汪岛 Reunion I. 262
罗马尼亚 Rumania 40
俄罗斯 Russia 7
卢旺达 Rwanda 250
东萨摩亚(美) Samoa,Eastern 684
西萨摩亚 Samoa,Western 685
圣马力诺 San.Marino 378
圣皮埃尔岛及密克隆岛 San.Pierre And Miquelon I. 508
圣多美和普林西比 San.Tome And Principe 239
沙特阿拉伯 Saudi Arabia 966
塞内加尔 Senegal 221
塞舌尔 Seychelles 248
新加坡 Singapore 65
斯洛伐克 Slovak 421
斯洛文尼亚 Slovenia 386
所罗门群岛 Solomon Is. 677
索马里 Somali 252
南非 South Africa 27
西班牙 Spain 34
斯里兰卡 Sri Lanka 94
圣克里斯托弗和尼维斯 St.Christopher and Nevis 1809
圣赫勒拿 St.Helena 290
圣卢西亚 St.Lucia 1758
圣文森特岛(英) St.Vincent I. 1784
苏丹 Sudan 249
苏里南 Suriname 597
斯威士兰 Swaziland 268
瑞典 Sweden 46
瑞士 Switzerland 41
叙利亚 Syria 963
塔吉克斯坦 Tajikistan 7
坦桑尼亚 Tanzania 255
泰国 Thailand 66
阿拉伯联合酋长国 The United Arab Emirates 971
多哥 Togo 228
托克劳群岛(新) Tokelau Is. 690
汤加 Tonga 676
特立尼达和多巴哥 Trinidad and Tobago 1809
突尼斯 Tunisia 216
土耳其 Turkey 90
土库曼斯坦 Turkmenistan 993
特克斯和凯科斯群岛( Turks and Caicos Is. 1809
图瓦卢 Tuvalu 688
美国 U.S.A 1
乌干达 Uganda 256
乌克兰 Ukraine 380
英国 United Kingdom 44
乌拉圭 Uruguay 598
乌兹别克斯坦 Uzbekistan 7
瓦努阿图 Vanuatu 678
梵蒂冈 Vatican 379
委内瑞拉 Venezuela 58
越南 Vietnam 84
维尔京群岛(英) Virgin Is. 1809
维尔京群岛和圣罗克伊 Virgin Is. and St.Croix I. 1809
威克岛(美) Wake I. 1808
瓦里斯和富士那群岛( Wallis And Futuna Is. 681
西撒哈拉 Western sahara 967
也门 Yemen 967
南斯拉夫 Yugoslavia 381
扎伊尔 Zaire 243
赞比亚 Zambia 260
桑给巴尔 Zanzibar 259
津巴布韦 Zimbabwe 263
中华人民共和国 P.R.C. 86
以上数据仅供参考

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塑料模具设计
表（二）
试 料

（燃烧试验）

脆化或不软化（热固性） 软化（热塑性）

自熄性 可燃性

燃烧后变白且具 燃烧后变黑 酚味 脆化 亮黄色火焰产生
有蛋白燃烧味 酚树脂 环氧树脂 苯乙烯味 多量的SiO2灰
聚酯树脂 硅树脂
（浸入沸水中10~20分钟）

试料表面 光泽不脱落
光泽脱落 三聚氰氨树脂
尿素树脂
自熄性 可燃性
（卤素反应） （放于水中）

（氟素反应） （氮反应） （浮于水）


聚氯二氟乙烯 聚氯乙烯 有蛋白的 氟反应阳性 酚味 石蜡味 石油味
聚氯亚乙烯 燃烧味 聚四氟乙烯 聚碳酸脂 聚乙烯 聚丙烯
聚 胺
沉入水中

燃烧产生黑烟 燃烧不产生黑烟
（浸入酒精中）
浓甲醛味 燃烧时熔融部分起
可容 难容 聚缩醛 泡且有芳香味
（置于浓硫酸中加温） （同左） 聚甲基丙烯酸甲脂


醋酸味 （丙烯醛反应） 醋酸味 苯乙烯味
聚醋酸乙烯 阳性 醋酸纤维素 苯乙类树脂
聚乙烯醇缩
甲醛 （氮反应）


AS树脂（硬脆） GP聚苯乙烯（硬脆）
ABS树脂（硬韧） HI聚苯乙烯（硬韧）

molding introduction

Fields of work
The injection moulding department currently has a staff of more than 25 engineers and technicians who, with the support of some 100 students, are engaged in the further development of mechanical, mould and process engineering. The following topics constitute the main focus of the department's work:
Mechanical and process engineering
Improved process control and closed-loop control systems are being developed and brought into a form where they can be suitably employed by industry. These concepts permit an increased productivity and a higher quality, and also serve to enhance the capacity of existing plant.

Computer-aided process simulation and mould layout
High-performance, computer-aided simulation techniques, such as the CADMOULD Version 6 program package developed at the IKV, together with the practical investigations that are being carried out, provide assistance in establishing the optimum design of injection moulds.

Quality assurance / process control
On-line quality monitoring and control, plus quality documentation for all the moulded parts produced, constitute key areas of our development work which we are pursuing in cooperation with our partners in industry.

Special processes
Processes such as the fluid assisted injection moulding, in-mould decoration, powder injection moulding and co-injection moulding are being subjected to both analytical and practical investigation in a bid to provide the user with guidance in the assessment and application of these processes. New, special processes are also under development, and concepts for combining and integrating processes are being implemented.

Polyurethane processing: process optimisation of reaction injection moulding (RIM, R-RIM, S-RIM), development of special processes (multi-component RIM, bladder RIM), process characterisation using ultrasound, process development for phenolic foams
Plant organisation
Solution concepts are worked out with allowance for the interplay of the different technical, organisational, personnel and economic aspects involved. These take in the costing of injection moulds and also staff training, for example.




Machine development: micro injection moulding machine



Computer-aided process simulation



Rapid Prototyping
Cooperation with industry
The practical orientation of the IKV's research work is reflected in the large number of projects that are being implemented in cooperation with partners from industry. These include: the computational layout of components and moulds for the automotive and aeronautical industry
the optimisation of shrinkage and warpage in components for the electrical engineering sector
enhancing moulded part quality and ensuring a constant process through direct cavity pressure control
energy consumption and reproducibility analyses for all-electric and hydraulic injection moulding machines
quality assurance measures for the processing of regrind
the powder injection moulding process for metal, ceramic and PTFE processing
the production of medical articles in resorbable plastics
compilation of a skills development concept for production staff in injection moulding companies


Services and facilities
One of the IKV's prime tasks is the implementation of the latest scientific findings in industrial practice. Assistance is provided for partners in industry in forms ranging from consultations, research and development contracts, and joint projects that are conducted in cooperation with a number of partners from industry.

In addition to a large number of conventional injection moulding machines, the injection moulding department has co-injection and fluid injection units, an all-electric machine, a micro-precision injection moulding machine and the appropriate equipment for the injection moulding of thermo-plastics, elastomers and thermosets at its disposal.

The Institute has a large number of injection moulds in stock, ranging from simple geometries, for analytical investigations, through to complex-shaped industrial parts. The machines and moulds are equipped with the latest measuring technology. A stereolithography unit for rapid prototyping rounds of the facilities available. The CADMOULD Version 6 software and a number of different CAD/CAM systems are available for mould layout and process simulation.





For further information, please contact:
Dipl.-Ing. Oliver Grönlund
Head of department Injection Moulding
Tel. +49 241 80-93827
Fax +49 241 80-92262
email: groenlund@ikv.rwth-aachen.de

Machine and mould technology
The developments that have taken place in the field of machine and mould technology have considerably extended the potential of injection moulding technology over the past few years. The focal points of the IKV's research are set out below. These are being worked on in cooperation with machine builders and plastics processors.

Machine selection
The optimum alignment of an injection moulding machine to the product range is of decisive importance for injection moulders in the light of the keen competition that prevails. The criteria employed in the selection of an appropriate injection moulding machine have so far been the size of the production run, the moulded part geometry and the characteristic values of the machine, such as clamping force and shot volume. To enable the aspect of moulded part quality to be included in the selection process as well, the IKV is developing a classification system for moulded parts, based on quality characteristics. This will permit conclusions to be drawn as to the requirements on the injection moulding machine.


Drive concepts
Different drive concepts are available on the market for injection moulding machines, yet there is frequently a lack of information on the energy consumption, noise emission and reproducibility of these different drive concepts. These criteria are being studied at the IKV in an independent analysis of the operating behaviour of all-electric and hydraulic injection moulding machines based on different concepts.


Demands on the moulded part


Keltool cavity


Principal mould with backilled insert



Dynamic mould temperature control
When injection moulding thermoplastics, it may be necessary to ensure not only rapid cooling of the moulded part but also short-term or local heating. The methods available for dynamic heating are fluid circuits at different temperatures and supplementary electric heaters. With both these solutions, cycle time can be chiefly influenced in the heating phase. Electric heating is more effective, since it allows selective heating of individual areas of the mould. Inductive heating has a higher efficiency on account of its heat transfer mechanism. Their advantage is that the mould surface can be selectively heated for a short period of time. Temperature control concepts of this type are currently being investigated at the IKV.


Rapid prototyping / Rapid tooling
Simultaneous engineering requires prototypes so that design errors can be detected at the earliest possible stage of product design, thereby cutting back on the cost and time involved in modifications. The IKV has a stereolithography unit at its disposal for the production of prototypes. This means that models for design and assembly tests can be made available within a very short period of time (rapid prototyping). For functional prototypes, by contrast, use is made of prototype moulds which permit the application of series material in a series process for the production of a limited number of prototypes (rapid tooling). The IKV is currently studying and evaluating processes for the direct production of moulds and for mould production via a process chain.


The IKV staff will be pleased to provide advice or engage in cooperation in the form of joint projects.


Special injection moulding processes 1
Injection-compression moulding
The injection-compression moulding process combines elements of both the injection moulding process and the compression moulding process. It permits a clear reduction in filling pressures and leads to less anisotropy in the properties of the moulded parts. This should be an advantage for thin-walled mouldings, mouldings decorated with textiles or films and optical, transparent mouldings.


In the case of parts decorated with textiles or film, it is the residual foam thickness that remains after moulding that is the main focus of attention. The injection-compression process not only gives higher foam layer thicknesses in absolute terms but also ensures a more homogeneous distribution of the layer thickness along the flow path.


With thin-walled mouldings, dimensional stability is of key importance as a quality criterion. This is influenced to a decisive extent by the shrinkage of the moulded part. Investigations at the IKV have shown that thin-walled mouldings with wall thicknesses of between 0.5 and 0.7 mm, display less shrinkage when produced by injection-compression moulding.


Injection-compression moulding has already gained considerable importance for the group of optical mouldings. This process is used especially in the production of optical lenses. Over and above this, it can also be employed for large-area optical mouldings, since these benefit not only from the better shrinkage compensation but also from the reduced filling pressure. Study results show that optical properties such as distortion and birefringence can be improved with the aid of injection-compression moulding.


The IKV is developing new application potential for this process in research projects and in direct cooperation with industry and is also compiling the necessary process knowledge. This know-how is then implemented in products on the basis of feasibility studies.


Textile decorated moulding part produced with injection compressing moulding


Injection compression moulded thin-walled part


Comparison of GAIM/Extrusion for bent pipes


GAFIM test specimen for bursting pressure material PA, braiders made of PA-fibres


Gas injection technique
The gas injection technique (GIT) generates cavities through the selective injection of an inert gas in specific, still molten areas of an injectionmoulded part, thereby creating a uniform gas pressure inside the moulded part. The gas injection technique became established for the production of thick-walled and rod-shaped parts many years ago. It is used particularly with ribbed and highly integrated parts, in order to minimise warpage and sink marks.


A logical step towards saving costs is to use the gas channel as a functional cavity for media lines. GIT offers particular advantages in cases where conventional production processes, such as extrusion or thermoforming, would involve a number of production operations. Costs can be reduced by comparison with 3D blow moulding for the manufacture of branched or highly integrated media lines and through the use of multi cavity moulds. The integration of media lines in a complex component is also possible.


Media lines suitable for the gas injection technique are being defined through market analyses and through cooperation with industry, and new variants of the gas injection technique are being developed at the IKV. One example of a product-oriented development of this type is the GAFIM process (Gas-Assisted Fibre Braid Injection Moulding), which can be used to meet stringent requirements, such as a high bursting pressure at high temperatures and good low-temperature impact strength.


Additional IKV processes, such as GASIM (Gas-Assisted Sequential Injection Moulding) for rigid/flexible combinations, GACIM (Gas-Assisted/Gas Counter Injection Moulding) for high volume lines and the CorePush process for branched lines will extend the range of applications still further.


Special injection moulding processes 2
Thermoset injection moulding
Information on material behaviour can be obtained by measuring the pressure loss with the aid of a newly developed standard measuring nozzle which incorporates a slot-shaped measuring section. The nozzle can be mounted directly on the injection moulding machine. In addition to this, information can also be obtained on flow behaviour, which is of key importance for processing in general, as well as on the behaviour of the material over time, which is significant for cold runner technology. Now that this standard measuring nozzle has proved successful in practice, it is to be implemented on a versatile measuring mould that can also be used to conduct investigations into curing behaviour.


The injection-compression moulding process holds much greater significance for thermoset processing than for thermoplastic processing. The chief influences on mechanical and optical properties in these processes have not, however, been quantified in their entirety. This is why injection-compression moulding is one of the focal points of IKV research, with particular emphasis on the processing of glass fibre reinforced phenolic resin moulding compounds.


Since it is not possible to recycle thermosets via the molten state on account of the irreversible chemical crosslinking process that takes place, the IKV has looked into particle recycling as a means of reuse. Comprehensive investigations have been conducted into the influence of particle size distribution in the regrind on the resultant properties of the moulded part. The results have shown that coarse recyclates and, in particular, the addition of up to 30% coarse recyclate does not pose any problems.


Different sensor types are to be studied in respect of their suitability for quality assurance and quality control in the thermoset injection moulding process. It would be conceivable to use pressure sensors or optical sensors to establish the optimum switchover points, dielectric sensors for monitoring curing processes, and also all-in systems available on the market.



Injection compression moulding


Influences on moulding properties with particle recycling


Mould for micro injection moulding



Injection moulded honeycomb structure: web thickness 2,5 µm, height 20 µm


Micro-injection moulding
Micro-injection moulding can be employed to produce micro-structured moulded parts in high volumes on a cost-effective basis. Studies are being conducted into questions concerning appropriate materials, the necessary plant and mould technology and guidelines for the generation of microcavities and for process control. Honeycomb structures with a crosspiece width of 2.5 µm and a structural height of 20 µm have already been produced here using a specially developed standard mould unit and the requisite peripherals.


A machine for injection moulding micro-components needs to fulfil different criteria from a conventional injection moulding machine. High clamping forces are not required; instead of this, special attention must be paid to the precise metering and injection of very small quantities of melt. The peripherals that generally go with the mould can be integrated directly in the standard mould unit in some cases. The IKV is working on a practicable concept for an injection moulding machine of this type.


To enable microsystems to be produced in a hybrid design, it is also necessary to have the appropriate handling systems and a suitable form of process control. The IKV is looking into micro-assembly injection moulding and injection riveting. The process engineering, process analysis and process optimisation are also being developed by the IKV.

Quality assurance
The steadily increasing competition from low-wage countries is forcing European producers of injection moulded parts to reduce their production costs by a considerable margin again and, at the same time, to increase their production efficiency. The process control methods that have been developed at the IKV to this end, on the basis of state-of-the-art automatic control strategies, make it possible to achieve the requisite uniformity in the production process and moulded part quality.

On-line quality monitoring
Quality documentation is gaining increasing importance. By calculating all the relevant quality characteristics of a moulded part from measured characteristic process parameters, it is possible to document the entire production process without need for the elabo-rate measurement of quality characteristics. Apart from documentation, online quality control is also employed for the elimination of rejects.


The implementation of quality documentation is greatly facilitated by the use of neural networks. Investigations at the IKV have shown that attributive characteristics, such as scorch and sink marks, can also be calculated with a high precision using this algorithm, which has been taken from the field of neuroinformatics research.


Quality control
Online quality control forms the basis of the automatic quality control system developed at the IKV. The machine setting parameters are corrected automatically with the aim of achieving optimum quality. There is then no need for the machine operator to intervene with this control system. The moulded part properties that are calculated by the online system are fed back to the master computer on the injection moulding machine via a state controller. Optimum machine setting parameters are then available from one cycle to the next.


Experimental moulding glasses, IKV Aachen


Series production moulding, company Mann + Hummel, Ludwigsburg


Quality control with neuronal networks


Adaptation of the cavity pressure controller over 6 cycles in the injection phase



Cavity pressure control
Apart from quality control covering all the machine cycles, a cavity pressure control system within each individual cycle constitutes an appropriate means of ensuring uniform moulded part quality. By contrast to the process engineering employed to date, where a velocity profile is specified for the injection phase and a pressure profile for the holding pressure phase, the cavity pressure control system requires a pressure profile to be specified for the cycle as a whole. A characteristic feature of this profile is a constant gradient in the injection phase which will generate a constant flow front velocity and hence constant morphological properties over the flow length.


A model-based predicative control concept has been developed at the IKV. This generates adjustment signals for the hydraulic valves or adjusting motors of the screw drive in real time and thus aligns the cavity pressure to the specified pressure curve online. The system includes an adaptive component to make allowance for process changes, such as material fluctuations. This adapts the controller to changed process conditions from one cycle to the next.


Plastics for innovative applications
Powder injection moulding
Powder injection moulding (PIM) is well established for the production of ceramic or metal parts in order to obtain the highest degree of design freedom and product automation. As it is a near net-shape technique, secondary finishing is reduced to a minimum and high output rates are typical. For metal injection moulding a small sized metallic powder is mixed with a wax-polymer binder that allows shaping in a thermoplastic injection moulding machine. After shaping, the wax-polymer binder is removed, usually by heat, and then the structure is sintered in a manner similar to traditional powder metallurgy or ceramics firing.


Apart from compounding, process management of injection moulding is particularly important for achieving the highest possible product quality, since it is at this stage of the process that key component properties are determined. For this reason, the analysis of the injection moulding process constitutes one of the focal points of the IKV's research work. In the course of fundamental process analysis investigations employing statistical methods, the correlations between process control and part quality as well as part defects are being established and described in both quantitative and qualitative terms.


Combining ceramic injection moulding with special plastics processing methods constitutes a further point of focus. By using gas-assisted injection moulding the amount of expensive raw material required can significantly cut while the stiffness of the part remains on high level. Consequently, considerable savings for debinding and sintering time can be realised due to the lower material input, thereby giving a more economic production process. Moreover, gas-assisted powder injection moulding enables new applications as well as an improved degree of integration. For example, ceramic pipes of complex geometry capable of carrying aggressive fluids or fluids at high temperature and pressure can be produced by use of this technique.


Powder injection moulding


Gas-assisted powder injection molding


Processing of thermoplasts by use of the gas loading technique


Foam from polyeactide produced within the gas loading process


Biodegradable plastics
Biodegradable plastics make a key contribution towards waste avoidance and material recycling. The material costs are still high, however, and special processing techniques are required. One way to reduce costs is to produce biodegradable foams. Research at the IKV is focusing on the influence of processing on moulded part properties for injection moulding and extrusion.


The resorbable plastics constitute a special group amongst the biodegradable plastics. These materials degrade into non-toxic substances in the body and are then eliminated. A large number of medical applications require implants that will remain in the body for a limited period of time. By using resorbable materials, it is possible to avoid having to perform a second operation to remove these temporary implants.


To satisfy the complex medical requirements, the so-called CESP-process (Controlled Expansion of Saturated Polymers) was developed at the IKV. This process permits amorphous thermoplastics to be moulded at temperatures below 40° C. In this way, temperature sensitive additives, such as proteins or antibiotics, can be incorporated.


The examples set out illustrate the benefits of conducting research into special materials for other fields in plastics processing as well. The IKV staff will be pleased to provide advice or engage in cooperation in the form of joint projects using the results of research already conducted.

PU Technology
Plant and process behaviour
It is only possible to implement in-process production monitoring in the manufacture of high-grade technical polyurethane (PU) components by the RIM process if all the influences acting on the process are known. Against this background, a modular simulation program has been developed at the IKV, which can be used to describe the metering behaviour of any desired RIM plant in mathematical terms. Investigations and trials were conducted with different statistic modelling methods, based on measured process parameter curves, in a bid to achieve a complete description of the complex process sequence and to predict the moulded part properties. It is then possible to estimate the influence of plant design on the process right at the planning stage of a RIM plant.



Foam characterisation
In moulded PU foam production, process parameters such as the degree of mould filling and the mould temperature, have a direct influence on component properties, such as the density structure. Different methods for analysing the process behaviour of PU foam have thus been developed at the IKV.

Mould filling behaviour can be investigated on different test settings using different in-view moulds. Ultrasonic measuring is used to analyse the foaming and crosslinking of PU systems during processing. Mechanical, thermal and rheological measuring equipment is available for assessing component properties and processing behaviour. The foam structure can be evaluated in quantitative terms with the aid of an optical analysis system developed at the IKV.



Influence of tube length on the isocyanat index k


Optical analysis of the foam structure


Numerical warpage compensation




An experimental analysis of the processing and component properties has formed the basis of a mathematical model of PU processing. By integrating the models in FEM and FDM processes, it is possible to simulate the filling behaviour of RIM mouldings and calculate the temperature and density development in moulded foams. In addition to this, the fibre orientation and mechanical component properties can be calculated for short fibre reinforced mouldings (RRIM).
PU sandwich mouldings: warpage behaviour
The shrinkage and warpage behaviour of PU mouldings is essentially influenced by the chemical and physical processes that take place during moulding. Sandwich mouldings in rigid PU foam with a reinforced outer layer are particularly prone to warpage on account of their anisotropic material properties.

Against this background, a mathematical model for describing warpage behaviour was developed at the IKV and implemented in an FEM environment. In this way, it is possible to optimise the component at the concept and design phase already, and also to cut back on cost and time-consuming prototype investigations.

PU development plant
The PU development plant at the IKV has three high-pressure metering units which can be used to process both compact PU systems and PU foam systems, as well as short-fibre reinforced systems by the RRIM method. Mouldings with continuous glass fibre reinforcement can also be produced by the SRIM process. Three mould holders and different test moulds are also available in the development plant.

IKV staff will gladly answer your questions regarding the possibility of cooperation in joint research projects and advise you on PU technology.